Sociology Poverty and Stratification - Free Essay Example

Living with a poverty level income is a difficulty facing many people around the world; poverty is a cultural universal, or trait found in every known culture – not an expression of individual differences. The most basic explanation for this is the trend towards social stratification, the system by which society organizes itself into a hierarchy. In some cultures this is manifest in the form of a caste system in which people who are in poverty have little to no chance of escaping it. In the United States the system is more in the form of a class system in which there is at least some degree of social mobility, and less status consistency allows people in poverty to have the possibility of changing their social status, but rarely the opportunity to do so. In the majority cases the most desirable situation is a meritocracy which ranks people based solely on personal achievements, or achieved status, rather than ascribed status such as being born into a ‘poor’ fam ily. Structural social mobility has resulted in a shift of social position for large numbers of people due to changes on a societal level, but these changes have had both upward and downward effects. The Davis-Moore thesis explains that social stratification has beneficial consequences in society, and is therefore functional, but this has been widely criticized due to its implications that society should prevent the development of individual talent. The resulting system of blue collar occupations versus white collar occupations is easily observed in society today. Around the world a wide variety of people are in poverty. This may be a result of many factors such as a traditional, agrarian society with low income; or a severely stratified economic system as a result of high population growth and little opportunity for education or access to technology. The feminization of poverty also plays a key role in the explanation of poverty worldwide, since there is an increasing trend f or more women to be in poverty than men. In the U. S. there are many of the same reason for poverty, but they are more easily defined on the local level. In most cases U. S. citizens who are in poverty are in relative poverty in relation to the rest of the U. S. population; whereas in the world as a whole a greater number of people are in absolute poverty and are barely able to survive on their income, or wages and earnings, and they have very little to no wealth since it is impossible to save any of their money. Ethnocentrism makes it difficult to obtain a clear picture of the conditions of poverty and inequality in other nations and cultures. There are many theories concerning the causes and solution for poverty in the global economy. The two major theories are the modernization theory which explains inequality in terms of technological and cultural difference between nations, and the dependency theory which explains poverty in terms of the historical exploitation of poor, o r low-income, nations by rich, or high-income, nations. This theory has manifest itself in a new way in today’s world in the form of neocolonialism; economic exploitation by multinational corporations. Race and ethnicity is key factor to poverty in the U. S. since an African-American is three times more likely to be in poverty than a non-Hispanic white. People with different ethnic backgrounds may experience alienation, or discrimination as a result of their differences with the people around them. Blaming the victim is a common explanation for poverty, but it doesn’t stand up to scrutiny since there are countless factors not all of which can be controlled by the victim or anyone. Gender stratification is another cause of poverty in the U. S. This social structure makes it difficult for a woman especially a single mother to both have a job and to raise children due to the preferential treatment of men in our society, or patriarchy and sexism. This double standard is often explained by the sociobiological argument that men are stronger than women due to natural selection. Age may also play a role in creating poverty. Ageism has made it very difficult for the elderly to advance in society. Young people assume that the elderly are either completely dependent or independent and they rarely will offer reasonable assistance for the elderly. The U. S. and other countries provide aid for those in poverty but rarely have structures in place to prevent people from reaching a state of poverty. Examples of such are shelters, soup kitchens, free clinics and government programs such as TANF or food stamps. In many cases these forms of aid are too temporary or not extensive enough to permanently pull a person or family out of poverty.

How Did Dinosaurs Raise Their Families

How difficult is it to figure out how dinosaurs parented their children? Well, consider this: until the 1920s, scientists werent even sure if dinosaurs laid eggs (like modern reptiles and birds) or gave birth to live young (like mammals). Thanks to some spectacular dinosaur egg discoveries, we now know the former to be the case, but the evidence for child-rearing behavior is more elusive — consisting mainly of the tangled skeletons of individual dinosaurs of various ages, preserved nesting grounds, and analogies with the behavior of modern reptiles, birds, and mammals. One thing is clear, though: different kinds of dinosaurs had different child-rearing regimens. Just as the babies of modern prey animals like zebras and gazelles are born with the ability to walk and run (so they can stick close to the herd and evade predators), one would reasonably expect that the eggs of large sauropods and titanosaurs produced ready-to-run hatchlings. And since modern birds care for their newborns in specially prepared nests, at least some feathered dinosaurs must have done the same — not high up in trees, necessarily, but in clearly marked-out birthing grounds.​ What Can Dinosaur Eggs Tell Us About Dinosaur Families? One of the main difference between viviparous (live birthing) mammals and oviparous (egg laying) reptiles is that the former can only give birth to a limited number of live newborns at a time (one for large animals like elephants, seven or eight at a time for smaller animals like cats and pigs), while the latter can potentially lay dozens of eggs in a single sitting. A female Seismosaurus, for instance, may have laid as many as 20 or 30 eggs at a time (despite what you may think, the eggs of 50-ton sauropods werent any bigger than bowling balls, and often significantly smaller). Why did dinosaurs lay so many eggs? As a general rule, a given animal will only produce as many young as are necessary to assure the survival of the species). The gruesome fact is that out of a clutch of 20 or 30 newly hatched Stegosaurus babies, the vast majority would immediately be gobbled up by swarming tyrannosaurs and raptors — leaving just enough survivors to grow into adulthood and ensure the perpetuation of the Stegosaurus line.  And just as many modern reptiles, including turtles, leave their eggs unattended after theyre laid, its a good bet that many dinosaurs did too. For decades, paleontologists assumed that all dinosaurs employed this drop-your-eggs-and-run strategy  and that all hatchlings were left to struggle (or die) in a hostile environment. That changed in the 1970s  when Jack Horner discovered the immense nesting grounds of a duck-billed dinosaur he named Maiasaura (Greek for good mother lizard). Each of the hundreds of Maisaura females that populated these grounds laid 30 or 40 eggs apiece in circular clutches; and Egg Mountain, as the site is now known, has yielded numerous fossils not only of Maiasaura eggs, but of hatchlings, juveniles, and adults as well. Finding all these Maiasaura individuals tangled together, in different stages of development, was tantalizing enough. But further analysis demonstrated that newly hatched Maiasaura possessed immature leg muscles (and thus were probably incapable of walking, much less running), and their teeth had evidence of wear. What this implies is that adult Maiasaura brought food back to the nest and cared for their hatchlings until they were old enough to fend for themselves — the first clear evidence of dinosaur child-rearing behavior. Since then, similar behavior has been adduced for Psittacosaurus, an early ceratopsian, as well as another hadrosaur, Hypacrosaurus, and various other ornithischian dinosaurs. However, one shouldnt conclude that all plant-eating dinosaurs treated their hatchlings with this degree of tender, loving care. Sauropods, for example, probably did not look after their young too closely, for the simple reason that a twelve-inch-long, newborn Apatosaurus would easily have been crushed by the lumbering feet of its own mother! In these circumstances, a newborn sauropod might stand a better chance of survival on its own — even as its siblings were picked off by hungry theropods. (Recently, evidence has come to light that some newly hatched sauropods and titanosaurs were capable of running on their hind legs, at least for brief periods of time, which helps to support this theory.) The Parenting Behavior of Meat-Eating Dinosaurs Because they were so populous  and laid so many eggs, we know more about the parenting behavior of plant-eating dinosaurs than  that of their meat-eating antagonists. When it comes to large predators like Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus Rex, the fossil record yields a complete blank: in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, the going assumption is that these dinosaurs simply laid their eggs and forgot about them. (Presumably, a newly hatched Allosaurus would be just as vulnerable to predation as a newly hatched Ankylosaurus, which is why theropods laid multiple eggs at a time, just like their plant-eating cousins.) To date, the poster genus for child-rearing theropods is the North American Troodon, which also has the reputation (deserved or not) of being the smartest dinosaur that ever lived. An analysis of the fossilized clutches laid by this dinosaur hints that the males, rather than the females, incubated the eggs — which may not be as surprising as you think, given that the males of many extant bird species are also expert brooders. We also have evidence of male brooding for two distantly related Troodon cousins, Oviraptor and Citipati, though its still unknown whether any of these dinosaurs cared for their young after they hatched. (Oviraptor, by the way, was given its libelous name — Greek for egg thief — in the mistaken belief that it stole and ate the eggs of other dinosaurs; in fact, this particular individual was sitting on a clutch of its own eggs!). How Avian and Marine Reptiles Raised their Young Pterosaurs, the flying reptiles of the Mesozoic Era, are a black hole when it comes to evidence of child-rearing. To date, only a handful of fossilized pterosaur eggs have been discovered, the first as recently as 2004, hardly a large enough sample to draw any inferences about parental care. The current state of thinking, based on the analysis of fossilized pterosaur juveniles, is that chicks emerged from their eggs fully cooked and required little or no parental attention. There are also hints that some pterosaurs may have buried their immature eggs rather than incubating them inside their bodies, though the evidence is far from conclusive. The real surprise comes when we turn to the marine reptiles that populated the lakes, rivers, and oceans of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Compelling evidence (such as tiny embryos fossilized inside the bodies of their mothers) leads paleontologists to believe that most, if not all, ichthyosaurs gave birth to live young in the water rather than laying their eggs on land — the first, and as far as we know only, reptiles ever to have done so. As with pterosaurs, the evidence for later marine reptiles like plesiosaurs, pliosaurs, and mosasaurs is pretty much nonexistent; some of these sleek predators may well have been viviparous, but they may also have returned to land seasonally to lay their eggs.

Review Of Previous Empirical Literature - 1557 Words

Review of previous empirical literature: A core element in the economic literature is the center on expansion and the use of man-made, natural, and social capital. The fact that there are three different types of capital that can contribute to economic growth has led to a difference between weak and strong sustainability, as discussed by Pearce and Turner (1990), and Rennings and Wiggering (1997). Weak sustainability describes a situation where it is assumed that the total capital is maintained and that the three different elements of the capital stock can, to some extent, be used to substitute each other in a sustainable solution. On the other hand, strong sustainability requires each of the three types of capital to be maintained in its own right, at least at some minimum level. An example of an application of the strong sustainability concept is Herman Daly’s criteria, which state that renewable resources must be harvested at (or below) some predetermined stock level, and r enewable substitutes must be residential to offset the use of exhaustible resources (Daly, 1990). Arrow et al., 2004, in a joint authorship between leading economists and ecologists, present an approach for evaluating alternative criteria for consumption, seen over time in a sustainable development perspective. Inter-temporal consumption and utility are introduced here as measurement points for sustainable development. One of the determinants of consumption and utility is the productive base ofShow MoreRelatedHealth Care Cost And Stricter Regulations For Insurance Reimbursement Plans888 Words   |  4 Pagesservices (Siabani, Driscoll, Davidson, and Leeder, 2014). 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Patient Referral And Intervention Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Patient Referral And Intervention. Answer: Referral service is an important aspect in healthcare. As per the legal procedures, if one physician is unable to treat the patient with the medical interventions available, he or she need to refer the patient to another improved healthcare facility. It is important so that quality of the healthcare provided to the patient can be maintained (Wendt, 2014). In this assignment Peggy (62) has to be referred to an improved hospital 800 km away from her community village and therefore will discuss the assessment and interventions needed for successful referral of Peggy. The journey of Peggy from her village to major city hospital is very long. Further, she is suffering from health issues such as infection in the site of tenckoff catheter site, shortness of breath, loss in peripheral as well as clouding in central vision, feverish feelings. Therefore, in this non-clinical transfer the community healthcare workers should take interventions to stabilize her swollen foot, shortness of breath and cramps so that she can travel 800 km with less pain and discomfort. Further for the legal referral procedure, a referral letter mentioning the MRN number of the patient contact details of the general physicians, important aspects of Peggys health, any current support she received, her personal care choices and a copy of referral should be attached with her referral documents (Wendt, 2014). This referral assessment procedure is important, as it will determine Peggys choices related to her community, issues related to her lifestyle and dietary habits so that in th e major city hospital, her preferences can be addressed without any mistake (Coombes et al., 2015). Further, an SBAR framework will be used along with the letters of referrals. The community nurse will clearly state Peggy about the most comfortable position at the time of the journey. The emergency medications will be carefully preserved and carried. The Peggy will be carrying her recent lab results, recent X rays, the dialysis access type. The community nurse will educate Peggy about her fluid intake during the course of her journey, so that through these interventions, Peggy can be transferred to the major city hospital without any further health complication (Wendt, 2014). References Coombes, J. S., Law, J., Lancashire, B., Fassett, R. G. (2015). Exercise is medicine curbing the burden of chronic disease and physical inactivity.Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health,27(2), NP600-NP605. Wendt, C. (2014). Changing healthcare system types.Social policy administration,48(7), 864-882.